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[[File:Pedio.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[https://www.instagram.com/wildandsour/ Pediococcus - picture taken by Per Karlsson]]]
'''''Pediococcus''''' (often referred to by brewers as "Pedio") are Gram-positive lactic acid bacteria (LAB) used in the production of Belgian style beers where additional acidity is desirable. They are native to plant material and fruits <ref name="ucdavis">[http://wineserver.ucdavis.edu/industry/enology/winemicro/winebacteria/pediococcus_damnosus.html Viticulture & Enology. UC Davis website. Pedioccous damnosus. Retrieved 07/28/2015.]</ref>, and often found in [[Spontaneous_Fermentation|spontaneously fermented]] beer as the primary source of lactic acid production (with ''P. damnosus'' being the only species identified in [[Lambic]]) <ref>[http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0095384 The Microbial Diversity of Traditional Spontaneously Fermented Lambic Beer. Freek Spitaels, Anneleen D. Wieme, Maarten Janssens, Maarten Aerts, Heide-Marie Daniel, Anita Van Landschoot, Luc De Vuyst, Peter Vandamme. April 18, 2014.]</ref><ref>[[Scientific_Publications#Lambic_and_Spontaneous_Fermentation|Multiple Scientific publications linked on MTF.]]</ref>. It is also seen as a major source of beer contamination in commercial breweries due to its ability to adapt to and survive in beer. The ability to grow in beer is strain dependent rather than species dependent, however, genetic differences indicate that ''P. damnosus'' and ''P. claussenii'' are better adapted to surviving in beer than ''P. pentosaceus'' <ref name="Snauwaert">[http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/s12864-015-1438-z.pdf Comparative genome analysis of Pediococcus damnosus LMG 28219, a strain well-adapted to the beer environment. Isabel Snauwaert, Pieter Stragier, Luc De Vuyst and Peter Vandamme. 2015.]</ref>. Like many bacteria, Pediococci pediococci have the ability to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer transfer genes horizontally] without reproduction <ref name="Snauwaert"></ref>. They are generally considered to be facultative anaerobes, which means they grow anaerobically but can also grow in the presence of oxygen <ref>[http://textbookofbacteriology.net/lactics.html Lactic Acid Bacteria. Todar's Online Texbook of Bacteriology. Kenneth Todar, PhD. Pg 1. Retrieved 08/09/2015.]</ref>. Some species/strains (including individual strains of ''P. damnosus'') can have their growth and acid production inhibited by oxygen <ref name="NAKAGAWA">[https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jgam1955/5/3/5_3_95/_article TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE GENUS PEDIOCOCCUS. ATSUSHI NAKAGAWA, KAKUO KITAHARA. 1959.]</ref>, while some will have better growth and produce more acid in the presence of oxygen (microaerophilic) <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC357257/ THE NUTRITION AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GENUS PEDIOCOCCUS. Erling M. Jensen and Harry W. Seeley. 1954.]</ref><ref>[http://www.microbialcellfactories.com/content/8/1/3#B5 Pediocins: The bacteriocins of Pediococcipediococci. Sources, production, properties and applications. Maria Papagianni and Sofia Anastasiadou. 2009.]</ref>. Strains found in beer are hop tolerant <ref>[http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2164/16/267 Comparative genome analysis of Pediococcus damnosus LMG 28219, a strain well-adapted to the beer environment. Isabel Snauwaert, Pieter Stragier, Luc De Vuyst and Peter Vandamme. April 2015.]</ref>. Due to their continued metabolism of longer chain polysaccharides, acid production will increase with storage time. ''Pediococcus'' can form a [[pellicle]].
''Pediococcus'' may also cause “ropiness” (also called a "sick beer") due to the production of exopolysaccharides when exposed to a fresh sugar source. "Ropy" or "sick" beer is more viscous and, in extreme circumstances, can form strands. Sickness effects mostly the mouthfeel and appearance of the beer, and may have no influence on the flavor. It is considered a temporary flaw in sour beer. Some brewers, including Vinnie Cilurzo from Russian River Brewing and some Belgian lambic producers, claim that after the ropiness goes away (generally in 3-6 months <ref name="ropy_time"></ref>) it produces a deeper acidity and mouthfeel, and is viewed as a positive process in the production of sour beer <ref>[http://www.xxlbrewing.com/hb/sour_beer/img_09.html Cilurzo, Vinnie. AHA Sour Beer presentation. 2007.]</ref>. For other brewers, ropy beer is seen as a nuisance due to the beer needing to be aged for a longer period of time, especially when it occurs shortly after bottling. ''Pediococcus'' species can also produce diacetyl with extended storage time <ref name="Garcia-Garcia" />. ''[[Brettanomyces]]'' can break down exopolysaccharides and diacetyl produced by ''Pediococcus'' and the two are often used together.
Currently, there are 11 recognized species of ''Pediococcus''. They are ''P. acidilactici'', ''P. argentinicus'', ''P. cellicola'', ''P. claussenii'', ''P. damnosus'', ''P. ethanolidurans'', ''P. inopinatus'', ''P. parvulus'', ''P. pentosaceus'' (subspecies ''pentosaceus'' and ''intermedius''), ''P. siamensis'', and ''P. stilesii''. ''P. cerevisiae'' was reclassified into either ''P. damnosus'' or ''P. pentosaceus''. Other species of ''Pediococcus'' have also been reclassified to other genera in the last couple of decades. ''P. dextrinicus'' is now classified as ''Lactobacillus dextrinicus'', ''P. urinae-equi'' is now classified as ''Aerococcus urinae‐equi'', and ''P. halophilis'' is now classified as ''Tetragenococcus halophilis'' <ref name="Wade_2018" />.
Pediococci are described as coccoidal (spherical) or ovoid (egg-shaped) in shape. They are Gram-positive, non-motile (not capable of moving on their own), and non-spore forming. They are obligate homofermentive and typically do not produce CO<sub>2</sub>, ethanol, or acetic acid, although there are a few exceptions to this in the literature. They do not produce [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalase catalase] (except for some ''P. pentocaseus'' strains which were reported to have pseudo-catalase activity by Simpson and Taguchi 1995) or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidase oxidase] enzymes. Because of the way that ''Pedioccous'' cells divide, they often appear stuck together in pairs or clumps. They are the only lactic acid bacteria found in wine and beer to do this, so they are easily identifiable at the genus level under a microscope based on their tendency to clump together. When grown on agar that is supplemented with 100 mg/L of pimaricin, the colonies are white-grey with a diameter of about 1 mm. Ropy strains have a high elasticity, and when touched with a needle, long threads can be drawn and sometimes the colonies completely stick to the needle. See [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ajgw.12366 table 2 from Wade et al. (2018)] for more species identification indicators and what carbohydrates different species can ferment <ref name="Wade_2018" /><ref name="Oevelen_1979">[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-37-0034 D. Van Oevelen & H. Verachtert (1979) Slime Production by Brewery Strains of Pediococcus Cerevisiae, Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists, 37:1, 34-37, DOI: 10.1094/ASBCJ-37-0034.]</ref>.
See also:
! Name !! Mfg# !! Taxonomy !! Note
|-
| [[Bootleg Biology]]/[[Spot Yeast]] || Sour Weapon P (''Pediococcus pentosaceus'' Blend) || ''P. pentosaceus'' blend || Perfect for acidifying unhopped wort quickly for kettle or “quick” sours. At 98F, it’s capable of achieving a pH of 3.3 within 18 hours. At 84F, it can reach a pH of 3.5 within 24 hours. With more time, a terminal pH of 3.1 may be reached. ''P. pentosaceus'' can also be used for long-term sours. It is capable of growing and producing lactic acid in worts with IBUs as high as 30, though it is recommended for unhopped worts as IBUs over 10 may prevent significant quick souring. At ~30 IBU, souring occurs in 2-3 months <ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/1302981419730069/?comment_id=1870460696315469&comment_tracking=%7B%22tn%22%3A%22R0%22%7D Justin Amaral and Per Karlsson on Bootleg biology Sour Weapon hop tolerance. milk The Funk Facebook group. 11/2/2017.]</ref>. This culture may produce antimicrobials called bacteriocins or pediocins. These can inhibit and kill similar species of bacteria like Lactobacillus and other Pediococcus species in mixed-culture fermentations. Read Bootleg Biology's [https://www.facebook.com/BootlegBiology/photos/a.148869931970401.1073741829.124634287727299/465185997005458/?type=1&theater Facebook post] regarding bacteriocins for more info. No signs of ropiness (exopolysaccharides) have occurred in testing <ref>[http://bootlegbiology.com/product/sour-weapon-pediococcus-pentosaceus-blend/ Bootleg Biology website. Retrieved 05/06/2016.]</ref>. It is still unknown how hops will affect souring in a long term scenario. Bootleg Biology is still researching long term effects and awaiting peoples feedback as of 5/23/2016.
|-
| [[East Coast Yeast]] || ECY33 || ''P. parvulus'' || Isolated from lambic which was refermented with grapes, this strain of ''Pediococcus'' produces lactic acid, diacetyl, and may cause ropiness in beer. Always add ''Brettanomyces'' where ''Pediococcus'' is used <ref name="ecy_website">[http://www.eastcoastyeast.com/wild-stuff.html "Wild Yeast / Brettanomyces / Lactic Bacteria". East Coast Yeast website. Retrieved 04/27/2018.]</ref>.
|-
| [[Escarpment Laboratories]] || Pediococcus Blend || Two ''Pediococcus'' strains (''P. damnosus'' and ''P. pentosaceus'') || This blend of 2 hop-resistant Pediococcus strains (P. damnosus and P. pentosaceus) is intended for use in long-term souring. Neither strain has been observed to produce exopolysaccharides (EPS). We recommend 15 IBU or less in the first generation.
|-
| [[Inland Island Brewing & Consulting|Inland Island Yeast Laboratories]] || INISBC-998 || ''P. damnosus'' || Gram positive cocci that produces lactic acid. Also produces diacetyl and several proteins that may cause a "rope" to form in the beer. Rope will disappear with time. Oxygen and hop sensitive. 75-90°F Temperature Range. '''No longer available.'''
|-
| [[Mainiacal Yeast]] (CLOSED) || MYPP1 || ''P. pentocaceus'' || Isolated from a growing marijuana plant. No production of diacetyl or EPS, with a clean acidity. Ferment at 70-100°F <ref name="Amaral_Mainiacal">Private correspondence with Justin Amaral by Dan Pixley. 01/24/2018.</ref>. Commercial pitches only.
|-
| [[Mainiacal Yeast]] (CLOSED) || MYPD1 || ''P. damnosus'' || Isolated from a bottle of belgian lambic. Produces diacetyl and EPS, so use in conjunction with ''Brettanomyces''. Ferment at 70-90°F <ref name="Amaral_Mainiacal" />. Commercial pitches only.
|-
| [[Omega Yeast Labs]] || OYL-606 || ''P. damnosus'' || This modestly hop tolerant Pedio strain produces a clean lactic tang over time. The strain can produce diacetyl so it is often paired with one or more Brett strains (to consume the diacetyl). While more hop tolerant than the Lacto Blend (OYL-605), IBUs over 5-10 IBU may inhibit souring. Souring time can vary depending on IBU level <ref>[https://omegayeast.com/yeast/bacterial-cultures/pediococcus Pediococcus OYL-606. Omega Yeast Labs website. Retrieved 06/11/2019.]</ref>. EPS production is unknown and has not been observed or reported <ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/2719576444737219/?comment_id=2719963548031842&comment_tracking=%7B%22tn%22%3A%22R%22%7D Adi Hastings. Milk The Funk Facebook group on OYL Pediococcus EPS production. 06/11/2019.]</ref>. Commercial pitches only.
|-
| [[Propagate Lab]] || MIP-920 || ''P. damnosus'' || Will sour a finished beer over time to a pH of 3.5 - 3.1. It works well at room temperature and is hop tolerant. It may produce ropiness <ref>[http://www.propagatelab.com/mip-920pediodamn Propagate Labs website. MIP-920. Retrieved 06/20/2020.]</ref>.
|-
| [[RVA Yeast Labs]] || RVA 601 || ''P. damnosus'' || Lactic acid bacteria used in souring Belgian-style beers such as gueze and Lambic. Acid production increases with storage. Temperature range is 60-95°F.
===Manufacturer Tips===
====[[Bootleg Biology]] on Sour WeaponP====This product, which is a blend of ''Pediococcus pentosaceus'', can be used for a kettle souring process or a mixed fermentation process. Jeff reported good growth results using 2 grams of calcium carbonate (chalk; CaCO3) per liter of wort for starters of Sour Weapon <ref name="mello_starter">[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/1369904163037794/?comment_id=1370329352995275&reply_comment_id=1370751796286364&comment_tracking=%7B%22tn%22%3A%22R5%22%7D Conversation on MTF with Jeff Mello regarding starters for Pediococcus. 08/08/2016.]</ref>. This same formula might benefit other ''Pediococcus'' starters as well. The CaCO3 serves as a buffering agent that keeps the starter pH from getting too low too fast, and is similar to the concept of buffered growth media for ''Lactobacillus'' (see [[Lactobacillus#Samuel_Aeschlimann.27s_Starter_Procedures|''Lactobacillus'' Starter]]).
Regarding exposure to oxygen in general:
Another environmental factor that can affect the growth and survival of ''Pediococcus'' is pH. ''P. damnosus'' is unable to grow at a pH of 8 or higher. One study showed that optimal growth for ''P. damnosus'' was observed in [http://www.neogen.com/Acumedia/pdf/ProdInfo/7406_PI.pdf MRS media] after ~84 hours with an initial pH of 6.7, and a final pH of 4.14, which occurred naturally from fermentation. The addition of bacteriological peptone, MnSO4, and Tween 80 also increased activity. Maximum cell densities of ''P. damnosus'' are around 4.3 billion cells/mL in MRS media starting at a pH of 5.5 <ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/1347683325259878/?comment_id=1349386438422900&reply_comment_id=1350340544994156&comment_tracking=%7B%22tn%22%3A%22R%22%7D Conversation with Richard Preiss on MTF regarding Pediococcus cell density. 07/19/2016.]</ref><ref name="Nel">[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11851822 Growth optimization of Pediococcus damnosus NCFB 1832 and the influence of pH and nutrients on the production of pediocin PD-1. Nel HA, Bauer R, Vandamme EJ, Dicks LM. 2001.]</ref>, but this is only in optimal conditions. Maximum cell density varies based on the conditions of the propagation with pH and nutrient demands being two of the main limiting factors <ref>[https://www.reddit.com/r/Homebrewing/comments/3qp7b7/advanced_brewers_round_table_neva_parker_white/cwh7iqq Neva Parker, Reddit thread. 10/29/2015.]</ref>.
Although more experiments are probably needed, agitation is believed to be an important factor for any species of microbe (yeast and bacteria). Gentle stirring on a stir plate or orbital shaker, or frequent gentle manual agitation leads to faster growth and a higher number of organisms. Agitation keeps the microbes in solution. It also maximizes the microbes' access to nutrients and disperses waste evenly. In a non-agitated starter, the microbes are limited to the diffusion rate of nutrients, leading to a slower and more stressful growth <ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/1168024059892473/?comment_id=1174865305875015&reply_comment_id=1176092372418975&total_comments=1&comment_tracking=%7B%22tn%22%3A%22R9%22%7D Conversation with Bryan of Sui Generis Blog about starters and agitation. 11/09/2015.]</ref>. Although ''Pediococcus'' are generally considered facultative anaerobes and oxygen usually does not negatively affect their growth, some strains may show less growth in the presence of oxygen and are considered anaerophilic, meaning that the presence of oxygen inhibits their growth (and therefore their acid production) but they can still grow in the presence of O<sub>2</sub>. The presence of CO<sub>2</sub> has a positive effect on acid production <ref name="NAKAGAWA"></ref><ref name="Oevelen_1979" /> . Therefore, it is generally best practice to seal the starter with an airlock.
====Starter Information====
See [[Lactic Acid]].
====VBNC====
''P. damnosus'' has been found to be able to enter a so-called "viable but nonculturable (VBNC) state" where cells are not culturable by routine means, but are still alive and recoverable when stress conditions are removed. This can lead to problems identifying these microorganisms in potentially spoiled products. See [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002364382101776X Zhenbo Xu et .al (2021)] for potential resuscitation strategies for ''P. damnosus''.
See also:
* [[Quality_Assurance#Viable_But_Nonculturable|Quality Assurance]]
===Carbohydrate Metabolism===
[[File:Pedio sugars.JPG|thumb|''Pediococcus'' fermentables based on species; table from [https://www.springer.com/us/book/9780387333410 "Wine Microbiology. Practical Applications and Procedures.", Kenneth C. Fugelsang, Charles G. Edwards, 2007.]]]
''P. damnosus'' can ferment glucose, sucrose, and galactosefructose. Some strains of ''P. damnosus'' can ferment maltose , sucrose, and sucrose galactose <ref name="ucdavis"></ref><ref name="Oevelen_1979" />. The disaccharide trehalose is the preferred carbon source for Pediococci pediococci <ref name="Geissler"></ref>. While simple sugars are the primary food source for ''Pediococcus'', many strains of ''P. damnosus'' have been observed to produce varying degrees of both alpha and beta-glucosidase enzymes. Alpha-glucosidase enzymes have the ability to break down higher chain sugars, including dextrins, starches, and glucans (possibly even the glucans that are produced by ''P. damnosus'' that result in ropy beer). The types of beta-glucosidase enzymes produced by ''P. damnosus'' are thought to perhaps play a role in breaking down monoglycosidic bonds (see [[Glycosides]]), but cannot break down the more complex diglycosidic bonds which are needed to break down many glycosides that would release flavor and aroma compounds. Compared to the microbe ''Oenococcus oeni'' which is often used in wine and cider fermentation (malolactic fermentation) and has been shown to have more impactful beta-glucosidase activity, ''P. damnosus'' is thought to be less impactful on glycosides. Unlike ''O. oeni'' which decreases its enzymatic activity in low pH conditions, enzymatic activity of ''P. damnosus'' is very stable at a pH of 3-4. Very low concentrations of glucose or fructose (1 g/l) inhibit this enzymatic activity in ''P. damnosus''. The presence of alcohol inhibits the alpha-glucosidase activity in most strains, which might contribute to longer lasting ropiness in beer. The optimal temperature for enzymatic activity in ''P. damnosus'' is between 35-40°C (95-104°F) <ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02707.x/full Screening of Lactobacillus spp. and Pediococcus spp. for glycosidase activities that are important in oenology. A. Grimaldi, E. Bartowsky, V. Jiranek. 2005. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02707.x.]</ref>.
===Lactic Acid Production===
[[File:Pedio EMP Pathway.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ajgw.12366 Homofermentative Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas (EMP) pathway for the production of lactic acid, acetoin, diacetyl and 2,3‐butanediol and acetic acid production from citrate metabolism. Image by Wade et al (2018).]]]
About 90% of sugar metabolized by ''Pediococcus'' produces both L- and D-lactic acid <ref name="Wade_2018" />. It does so by homolactic fermentation producing primarily lactic acid (same EMP pathway as [[Lactobacillus#Types_of_Metabolism|''Lactobacillus'' homolactic fermentation]]), although some species/strains can convert glycerol to lactic acid, acetic acid, acetoin, and CO2 under aerobic conditions (''P. damnosus'' is not in this category) <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=1b1CAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA1&lpg=RA2-PA1&dq=pediococcus+damnosus+homolactic&source=bl&ots=myI2alVB78&sig=cG-yWB4GuABQFEtqD2CAyKmU0TE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBGoVChMI66C5593-xgIVCVKICh3Pcg7c#v=onepage&q=pediococcus%20damnosus%20homolactic&f=false Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology. Pediococcus. Carl A. Batt. Academic Press, Sep 28, 1999 .]</ref>. Some strains of ''P. pentosaceus'' can ferment five-chain sugars such as xylose to produce acetic acid and lactic acid. Some strains of ''P. halophilus'' (now reclassified as ''Tetragenococcus halophilis'') can convert citric acid into acetic acid and oxaloacetate (oxaloacetate is then further reduced to acetic acid and diacetyl, and the diacetyl is further reduced to acetoin, and 2,3-butanediol) by producing citrate lyase enzyme. This generally occurs at a slower rate than malolactic fermentation and depends on pH and temperature. However, all species in the ''Pediococcus'' genus are considered obligatory homofermentative because of the pathways that they use <ref>[http://aem.asm.org/content/81/20/7233.full A Genomic View of Lactobacilli and Pediococci pediococci Demonstrates that Phylogeny Matches Ecology and Physiology. Jinshui Zheng, Lifang Ruan, Ming Sun and Michael Gänzle. 2015.]</ref><ref name="Wade_2018" /><ref>[https://aem.asm.org/content/53/6/1257.short Citrate Metabolism by Pediococcus halophilus. Chiyuki Kanbe, Kinji Uchida. 1987.]</ref>.
===Diacetyl and Acetoin===
''P. damnosus'' can produce high amounts of diacetyl and acetoin during lactic acid production <ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.00956.x/pdf Identification of pediococci by ribotyping. R. Satokari, T. Mattila-Sandholm and M.L. Suihko. Journal of Applied Microbiology 2000, 88, 260–265.]</ref><ref>[http://mmbr.asm.org/content/77/2/157.full The Microbiology of Malting and Brewing. Nicholas A. Bokulicha, and Charles W. Bamforth. June 2013.]</ref>. Diacetyl is the 'buttery' aroma and flavor found in beer (generally not favorable) and in wine (favorable in amounts between 1-4 mg/L). While other microbes found in beer and wine fermentation (namely ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'') can also produce diacetyl, ''Pediococcus'' and other lactic acid bacteria are known to be able to produce much higher amounts <ref name="Wade_2018" />.
In lactic acid bacteria, diacetyl can be the byproduct of both homofermentative metabolism of sugars as well as the metabolism of citric acid, and it is a way for the cells to regenerate NADP<sup>+</sup>. In either of these two pathways, extra pyruvate is turned into alpha-acetolactate which then undergoes an oxidative decarboxylation reaction to produce diacetyl. Diacetyl is often reduced by yeast to acetoin and/or 2,3-butanediol, which have a higher threshold and less of an impact on the finished beer/wine <ref name="Wade_2018" />. In mixed fermentation sour beer, the breakdown of diacetyl into acetoin and 2,3-butanediol is often thought to be carried out by ''Brettanomyces''in a similar way to ''Saccharomyces'' species, but this has not been investigated that we are aware of. It has been reported that diacetyl reduction is faster at a lower pH of around 3.5, which is a typical pH range for sour beer and might be one of the contributing factors to a lack of anecdotal reports of diacetyl in sour beer <ref>[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jib.381 Michel, M., Meier‐Dörnberg, T., Jacob, F., Methner, F. ‐J., Wagner, R. S., and Hutzler, M. (2016) Review: Pure non‐Saccharomyces starter cultures for beer fermentation with a focus on secondary metabolites and practical applications. J. Inst. Brew., 122: 569– 587. doi: 10.1002/jib.381.]</ref><ref name="krogerus_2013">[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259331290_125th_Anniversary_Review_Diacetyl_and_its_control_during_brewery_fermentation Krogerus, K. and Gibson, B.R. (2013), 125th Anniversary Review: Diacetyl and its control during brewery fermentation. J. Inst. Brew., 119: 86-97. https://doi.org/10.1002/jib.84.]</ref>.
Several variables the affect diacetyl and acetoin production have been identified. First of all, some strains of ''Pediococcus'' species produce diacetyl, and others do not. During malolactic fermentation(conversion of citric acid to lactic acid), the temperature at which MLF is conducted can influence whether or not diacetyl is produced. For example, two studies reported that more diacetyl and acetoin were produced during the MLF in wine at 18°C compared at 25°C. The effect of temperature is not well understood, but it has been hypothesized that it could be that at lower temperature yeast is less active and thus cannot break the diacetyl down to acetoin and 2,3-butanediol (extended time exposed to active yeast or on lees can reduce diacetyl in wine and probably also beer). If SO<sub>2</sub> is used, it can bind to diacetyl in a form that cannot be tasted, although the SO<sub>2</sub> can become unbound and release the diacetyl again. An increase in citric acid can also lead to more diacetyl under semi-aerobic conditions but not anaerobic conditions. The presence of glucose has also been associated with higher levels of diacetyl production in wine <ref name="Wade_2018" />.
==="Ropy" or "Sick" Beer===
[[File:EPS.gif|thumb|300|Exopolysaccharide pathway <ref name="ESP">[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740002004000668 Glucose fermentation kinetics and exopolysaccharide production by ropy Pediococcus damnosus IOEB8801. Emilie Walling, Marguerite Dols-Lafargue, Aline Lonvaud-Funel. Food Microbiology Volume 22, Issue 1, January 2005, Pages 71–78.]</ref>]]
Some strains of ''P. damnosus'' (and other bacteria) can cause a beer (or wine) to go "ropy", also known as "sick" by [[lambic]] brewers (or more specifically as "the fat sickness"; “la maladie de la graisse” in French <ref>[https://beerbybart.com/2011/04/03/true-lambic-jean-van-roy-cantillon-sick-beer/ True Lambic: Sick beers and the magic of Cantillon. Beer By Bart blog. Gail Ann Williams. 04/03/2011. Retrieved 04/23/2016.]</ref>). Reportedly, ropiness in beer that also has ''Brettanomyces'' (which is traditionally credited with breaking down the ropiness after a period of rest) usually lasts anywhere from 1 week to 3 months, although fewer reports claim that it has lasted as long as 7 months (see reference for different experiences of brewers) <ref name="ropy_time">[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/1132030550158491/ Poll on Milk The Funk regarding how long ropy beer has been observed. 08/20/2015.]</ref>. Some species of ''Pediococcus'' and other lactic acid bacteria have been reported to also be able to break down ropiness <ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/1670311836330357/?comment_id=1670331339661740&comment_tracking=%7B%22tn%22%3A%22R0%22%7D Matt Humbard and Joe Idoni. Milk The Funk Facebook group. 04/29/2017.]</ref>. The viscosity of ropy beer has been reported to be higher at the bottom of wooden barrels than near the top, either due to sedimentation or perhaps more growth of ''Pediococcus'' near the bottom of wooden barrels due to yeast autolysis and/or less exposure to oxygen <ref name="Oevelen_1979" />. Despite the popularity of this talking point about ''Pediococcus'' in brewing, a lot of strains of ''Pediococcus'' used in brewing don't seem to produce ropiness, especially strains sourced from beer yeast labs. For example, Richard Preiss of [[Escarpment Laboratories]] reported only seeing ropiness from ''Pediococcus'' sourced from [[lambic]] <ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/2859721020722760/?comment_id=2859868767374652&comment_tracking=%7B%22tn%22%3A%22R%22%7D Richard Preiss. Milk The Funk Facebook group thread on the frequency of ''Pediococcus'' caused ropiness. 08/20/2019.]</ref>.
[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-37-0034 Oevelen and Verachtert (1979)] demonstrated that ''Brettanommyces bruxllensis'' reduces the viscosity of ropiness produced by ''Pediococcus'', but that at least one strain of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' does not <ref name="Oevelen_1979" />. The scientists tested two strains of ''B. bruxellensis'', and when either one of these strains were co-pitched with a strain of ''P. damnosus'' (formerly called ''P. cerevisiae''), at two weeks there was the same level of viscosity as when the ''P. damnosus'' strain was pitched by itself, but at 4 weeks the viscosity was greatly reduced (although the viscosity was still higher than when there was no ''Pediococcus'' present). When they co-pitched a strain of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' with the ''Pediococcus'', the viscosity remained high at 4 weeks, demonstrating that this strain of ''S. cerervisiae'' was not able to reduce the viscosity of the ropiness (it is not known if this strain of ''S. cerevisiae'' was diastatic or not). The scientists also attempted to stagger the pitch of ''Brettanomyces'', pitching it two weeks after the ''Pediococcus''. This resulted in very low growth of the ''Brettanomyces'' and no reduction in viscosity due to that limited growth. The limited growth was attributed to the low pH that the ''Brettanomyces'' yeast was exposed to at inoculation time. The ''Brettanomyces'' was able to reduce the viscosity when the scientists add another 10 g/L of glucose, and buffered the pH to 4. The researchers also found that when ropy media was exposed to air, it immediately disappeared. However, exposing ropy beer to air is not an acceptable method for dealing with ropiness due to oxidation and acetic acid production in sour beer when it is exposed to oxygen <ref name="Oevelen_1979" />. The exact enzymatic activity for how ''Brettanomyces'' (or other microorganisms) break down EPS from ''Pediococcus'' is not well characterized, but it could be due to alpha-glucosidase activity in those yeasts (see [[Brettanomyces#Carbohydrate_Metabolism_and_Fermentation_Temperature|''Brettanomyces'' metabolism]] and [[Pediococcus#Carbohydrate_Metabolism|Carbohydrate Metabolism]] above). This "ropiness" is caused by production of exopolysaccharides (EPS) in the form of β-glucans (beta glucans) by some strains ''Pediococcus'' and some other lactic acid bacteria species. Ropiness also contains 4-15% proteins and nucleic acid in the form of RNA <ref name="Oevelen_1979" />. The β-glucans are made up of beta 1, 3 linkages and beta 1, 2 branches composed of single units <ref name="Wade_2018" />. A small amount (20-30 mg/L <ref name="Wade_2018" />) of β-glucan is adequate enough to affect the visible viscosity of beer or wine. The gene known as "dps" has been identified with the production of β-glucan/EPS in ''P. damnosus'', and the gene "gtf" in ''P. claussenii'' <ref name="Snauwaert"></ref>. Not all strains of ''P. damnosus'' express the gene, and only ones that do will cause a beer to go ropy. Although it is not needed to survive in beer, EPS production is probably has importance in biofilm production <ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=23890699 Ethanol tolerance of lactic acid bacteria, including relevance of the exopolysaccharide gene gtf. Pittet V, Morrow K, Ziola B. 2011.]</ref>, and ''Pediococci'' pediococci that are ropy have been found to be more acid, alcohol, and SO2 tolerant than other ''Pediococci''pediococci. The thickness of the ropiness is increased with the presence of malic acid <ref name="ESP"></ref>. While strains of ''P. damnosus'' and ''P. parvulus'' are the ''Pediococcus'' species most associated with ropiness, some strains of ''P. pentosaceus'' have also been found to produce EPS <ref name="Wade_2018" />.
One study showed that the production of β-glucan coincided with the end of the growth phase of ''Pediococcus''. While small amounts of β-glucan were produced during growth, after 2 days of growth, β-glucan production increased as growth slowed. β-glucan production stopped when growth stopped. This study showed that β-glucan production is linked to ''Pediococcous'' growth, producing more towards the end of growth. This study found that other variables were not factors in the production of β-glucan, such as differing levels of alcohol (although alcohol interacts with the β-glucan in a way that makes the viscosity seem thicker). The study also found that the lack of agitation increased the β-glucan production (wine makers will often agitate or aerate ropy wine to cure the wine from ropiness). A higher initial pH encourages higher growth (5.5+), which increases β-glucan production. A lower initial pH (3.5), decreases growth and β-glucan production. A higher concentration of glucose increased growth and β-glucan production. Glucose is needed for β-glucan production. While fructose alone is mostly insufficient to produce ropiness, a combination of glucose and fructose was slightly more efficient than glucose alone <ref name="ESP"></ref>. The introduction of malic acid, glucose, fructose, and/or nitrogen from things like fruit that is added to sour beer or even sugar added for natural carbonation can trigger ''Pediococcus'' growth and EPS production.
Temperature and nitrogen levels also affect how much EPS is produced. One study found that at 12°C both growth and EPS production was much slower than at 25°C. After 29 days in agar media, the EPS in the 12°C samples tended to reach or slightly exceed the levels in the 25°C samples, which developed equivilant levels of EPS (or slightly less) within 7-13 days. Nitrogen levels also play a significant role, according to this study, particularly at lower fermentation temperatures. At 12°C, nitrogen was more important for the formation of EPS than glucose (although glucose was found to be the most important factor in EPS development overall, which is in agreement with the previously cited study). At 25°C nitrogen levels played a significant role in producing EPS, however less so than glucose levels. In general though, higher availability of nitrogen complimented higher levels of glucose to produce more EPS (and faster/higher cell growth) <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168160503000606 Exopolysaccharide production by Pediococcus damnosus 2.6 in a semidefined medium under different growth conditions. Maite Dueñas, Arantza Munduate, Aidé Perea, Ana Irastorza. 2003.]</ref>. Stress in the environment such as ethanol and SO<sub>2</sub> has also been shown to induce EPS production, and a lack of available glucose has been associated with eliminating the production of EPS (e.g. malolactic fermentation by ''Pediococcus'' in wine tends not to produce EPS, perhaps due to the lack of glucose in the environment) <ref name="Wade_2018" />.
The presence of beta-glucans from barley have been observed to extend both the growth and the viability of ''Lactobacillus'' species in probiotics, indicating that ropiness might be a stress response <ref>[http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/15/2/3025/htm Barley β-Glucans-Containing Food Enhances Probiotic Performances of Beneficial Bacteria. Mattia P. Arena, Graziano Caggianiello, Daniela Fiocco, Pasquale Russo, Michele Torelli, Giuseppe Spano, and Vittorio Capozzi. 2014.]</ref><ref>[http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/13/5/6026/htm Beta-Glucans Improve Growth, Viability and Colonization of Probiotic Microorganisms. Pasquale Russo, Paloma López, Vittorio Capozzi, Pilar Fernández de Palencia, María Teresa Dueñas, Giuseppe Spano, and Daniela Fiocco. 2012.]</ref>. One study looked at this effect in beta-glucans produced by ''Pediococcus parvulus'' and found that ''L. plantarum'' had a longer viability in a fermented medium with no additional food source when that medium was first fermented with ''P. parvulus'' and EPS was produced. The ''L. plantarum'' strain that was tested did not ferment the beta-glucans. This suggests that there is an interspecies simbiotic relationship between lactic acid bacteria that produce EPS and those that don't, and when EPS is produced (beta-glucans are present) the bacteria survive longer. The study also observed that more EPS was produced in an oat based wort and a rice based wort, while no EPS was produced in a barley based wort, suggesting that different food sources influence whether or not EPS is produced <ref>[http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/18/7/1588/htm In Situ β-Glucan Fortification of Cereal-Based Matrices by Pediococcus parvulus. Adrián Pérez-Ramos, María Luz Mohedano, Paloma López, Giuseppe Spano, Daniela Fiocco, Pasquale Russo, and Vittorio Capozzi. 2017.]</ref>. Pittet et al. (2011) found that the presence of the EPS genes in lactic acid bacteria did not correspond with the ability to survive beer-level ethanol levels or higher, which led to the hypothesis that perhaps EPS provides LAB a way to assist in the formation of [[Quality_Assurance#Biofilms|biofilm]], although this has yet to be demonstrated scientifically <ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1094/ASBCJ-2011-0124-01 Ethanol Tolerance of Lactic Acid Bacteria, Including Relevance of the Exopolysaccharide Gene Gtf. Vanessa Pittet and Kendra Morrow and Barry Ziola. 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/ASBCJ-2011-0124-01.]</ref>. Along these same lines, [https://www.academia.edu/27927065/Lysozyme_resistance_of_the_ropy_strain_Pediococcus_parvulus_IOEB_8801_is_correlated_with_beta_glucan_accumulation_around_the_cell Coulon et al. (2012)] reported that an EPS producing strain of ''Pediococcus parvulus'' was more resistant to the antimicrobial enzyme [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysozyme lysozyme], which is often added to wine to kill lactic acid bacteria. The beta-glucan EPS formed a "coat" around the cells of the bacteria, thus protecting it from the lysozyme enzyme. When a beta-glucanase enzyme was added to break down the EPS produced by the bacteria, the beta-glucan "coat" disappeared from the cell walls and the lysozyme was once again effective at killing this strain of ''Pediococcus'' <ref>[https://www.academia.edu/27927065/Lysozyme_resistance_of_the_ropy_strain_Pediococcus_parvulus_IOEB_8801_is_correlated_with_beta_glucan_accumulation_around_the_cell Coulon, Joana et al. “Lysozyme Resistance of the Ropy Strain Pediococcus Parvulus IOEB 8801 Is Correlated with Beta-Glucan Accumulation around the Cell.” International Journal of Food Microbiology 159.1 (2012): 25–29. Web.]</ref>.
It has been observed that ''Lactobacillus'' species can produce EPS (''Lactococcus lactis'', ''Lactobacillus delbrueckii'', ''Lactobacillus casei'', and ''Lactobacillus helveticus'') <ref name="ESP"></ref>. Some ''Oenococcus oeni'' strains can also produce EPS <ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19659698/ Ciezack G, Hazo L, Chambat G, Heyraud A, Lonvaud-Funel A, Dols-Lafargue M. Evidence for exopolysaccharide production by Oenococcus oeni strains isolated from non-ropy wines. J Appl Microbiol. 2010 Feb;108(2):499-509. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04449.x. Epub 2009 Jun 30. PMID: 19659698.</ref>. Some species of yeast can also produce EPS, including ''Candida'', ''Cryptococcus'', ''Debaryomyces'', ''Lipomyces'', ''Pichia'' <ref>[https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/2465980936763439/ Zach Taggart. Milk the Funk Facebook group post on EPS from yeast. 01/16/2019.]</ref>, ''Pseudozyma'', ''Rhodotorula'' and ''Sporobolomyces'' <ref name="Gientka_2015">[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283498621_Exopolysaccharides_from_yeast_insight_into_optimal_conditions_for_biosynthesis_chemical_composition_and_functional_properties_-_review?fbclid=IwAR1X6Y0rnquoF6SD-eH9m6EWpLIefgZJFUJK51NJYBooJWngxEVS2aR3PKE Exopolysaccharides from yeast: insight into optimal conditions for biosynthesis, chemical composition and functional properties - review. Iwona Gientka, Stanisław Błażejak, Stanisław Błażejak, Lidia Stasiak, Lidia Stasiak, Anna Chlebowska-Śmigiel, Anna Chlebowska-Śmigiel. 2015.]</ref>.
====Videos====* [https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/4547361381958707/ Highly viscous ropy beer video posted in MTF by Roi Funk Krispen.]* [https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/3478055812222608/ Post on MTF by Brandon Jones showing initial ropiness of a beer, and then after aging the ropiness out for 8 weeks.]* [https://www.facebook.com/groups/MilkTheFunk/permalink/1813022388725967/ Videos Other videos on MTF of ropy beer.]
===Bacteriocins===
Biogenic amines are produced by all living things and are present in many fermented beverages. High dosages can lead to health issues such as vomiting, headache, asthma, hypotension, and cardiac palpitation. Thus, biogenic amines have been studied intensely <ref name="Wade_2018" />. For more information on biogenic amines in beer in general, see [http://suigenerisbrewing.com/index.php/2019/01/22/biogenic-amines/ "Fact or Fiction – Biogenic Amines in Beer" by Dr. Bryan Heit].
Some strains of lactic acid bacteria, including ''Pediococcus'', can metabolize amino acids into biogenic amines, and potentially also degrade them <ref>[https://watermark.silverchair.com/0362-028x-60_7_831.pdf Tyramine Formation by Pediococcus spp. during Beer Fermentation. MARIA IZQUlERDO-PULIDO, JOSEP-MIQUEL CARCELLER-ROSA, ABEL MARINE-FONT, and M. CARMEN VIDAL-CAROU. 1996.]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240429641_Effect_of_tyrosin_on_tyramin_formation_during_beer_fermentation Effect of tyrosin on tyramin formation during beer fermentation. Maria Izquierdo-Pulido, M. Carmen Vidal-Carou. 2000.]</ref>. The number of strains capable of doing this producing biogenic amines appears to be very low. [https://link.springer.com/pdf%2F10.1007%2FBF01105812 Weiller and Radler (1976)] found that only one out 28 strains of ''P. cerevisiae'' (later reclassified to ''P. damnosus'' and ''P. pentosaceus'') produced biogenic amines. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/973463 Strickland et al. (2016)] found that out of multiple species of ''Pediococcus'', only one strain of ''P. inopinatus'' produced biogenic amines, and it only produced 3.3 mg/L of histamine. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168160511002893 García‐Ruiz et al. (2011)] reported that 9 out of 85 strains of ''P. parvulus'' and ''P. pentosaceus'' were able to degrade some biogenic amines (histamine, tyrosine, and putrescine) in culture media, but were unable to do so in wine, indicating that any degradation of biogenic amines in wine that might occur is not likely due to lactic acid bacteria , but due to some other cause <ref name="Wade_2018" />. Izquierdo-Pulido et al. (1995) found that out of 35 samples of Spanish lagers contaminated with ''Pediococcus'', 21 of them had final tyramine levels between 5-10 mg/l, 6 of them had no detected tyramine, and 8 of them had high levels around 25 mg/l, with higher levels being correlated to higher cell counts of ''Pediococcus''. higher levels of tyramine were associated with higher cell counts of the tyramine-producing strains during smaller bench test fermentations as well. There was no correlation between the presence of wild yeast and tyramine production. Filtration and pasteurization after fermentation had no effect on the levels of tyramine in the final beers <ref>[https://watermark.silverchair.com/0362-028x-59_2_175.pdf Biogenic Amine Changes Related to Lactic Acid Bacteria During Brewing. MARIAI ZQUIERDO-PULIDO, JUDIT FONT-FABREGAS, JOSEP-MIQUEL CARCELLER-ROSA, ABEL MARINE-FONT, and CARMENVIDAL-CAROU. 1995.]</ref>.
See also:
* [[Spontaneous_Fermentation#Biogenic_Amines|Biogenic amines in spontaneously fermented beer.]]
* [[Brettanomyces#Biogenic_Amines|Biogenic amine production in by ''Brettanomyces''.]]
* [[Wine#Biogenic_Amines|Biogenic amines in wine.]]
* [http://www.horscategoriebrewing.com/2019/01/spontaneous-fermentation-and-biogenic.html "Spontaneous fermentation and biogenic amines" by Dr. Dave Janssen; review of several studies that looked at the levels of biogenic amines in different beers and their production, and their potential flavor contribution.]