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Hops
,updated antimicrobial section with info about oxidized hop acids
Another antimicrobial mechanism resulting from oxidative stress has been attributed to both iso-α-acids and humulinic acids<ref name="Schurr et al, 2015"> [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740002014002470 Schurr et al., (2015)] </ref>. Humulinic acids are either not bitter tasting or much less bitter than iso-α-acids but are similar in structure to and are formed from the degradation of iso-α-acids as well as during the aging of hops <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040402001981992 The absolute configuration of the isohumulones and the humulinic acids. D.De Keukeleire, M.Verzele. 1971. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-4020(01)98199-2.]</ref>. This oxidative stress-driven antimicrobial activity is due to the potential for oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions within bacterial cells between Mn2+ ions and these specific hop acids. The redox potential is due to different conditions inside (higher pH, higher Mn2+) and outside (lower pH, lower Mn2+) of the bacterial cell<ref name="Behr and Vogel, 2010"> [http://aem.asm.org/content/76/1/142.short Behr and Vogel, (2010)] </ref><ref name="Schurr et al, 2015"/>. Iso-α-acids or humulinic acids passing into the cell, form complexes with Mn2+ and transfer electrons out of the cell<ref name="Behr and Vogel, 2010"/>. By targeted molecular modifications [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740002014002470 Schurr et al. (2015)] determined that the Mn oxidative stress-driven antimicrobial effect of iso-α-acids was more important than the antimicrobial effect of the ionophore proton transfer discussed above in the overall antimicrobial activity of hops. Thus, the antimicrobial effects of humulinic acids have been found to be even stronger than iso-alpha acids, suggesting that aged hops retain at least some antimicrobial properties at least partially from humulinic acids <ref name="Schurr et al, 2015"/>.
The oxidized forms of hop acids have been shown to have a limited inhibitory effect on Gram-positive bacteria. This might explain the anecdotal experiences of some brewers that have tried using aged hops that were high alpha varieties and produced beer that wasn't sour. Stevens et al. (1961) reported that a strain of ''Lactobacillus'' that was cultured from infected beer was inhibited by alpha acids at 40 ppm, beta acids at 10 ppm, iso-alpha acids at 160 ppm, and oxidized beta acids (cohulupone) at 200 ppm. So, while the oxidized beta acids had the least inhibitory power, a high concentration was still inhibitory <ref name="Stevens_1961">[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1961.tb01830.x R. Stevens, Ph.D., F.R.I.C., and D. Wright, Ph.D. 1961.]</ref>. Oxidized alpha acids (humulinones) have only been tested for antibacterial properties at a concentration of 50 ppm or less. At 50 ppm, oxidized alpha acids were not able to inhibit two strains of ''Lactobacillus'' that were isolated from infected beer, as reported by Hough et al. (1956) <ref>[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1957.tb06267.x J. S. Hough, B.Sc, Ph.D., G. A. Howard, M.Sc., Ph.D., and C. A. Slater, Ph.D. 1957.]</ref>. See [[Hops#Acids_2|oxidized hop acids]] for more information on oxidized hop acids.
Dry hopping has also been demonstrated to inhibit lactic acid bacteria. See [[Hops#Dry_Hopping|Dry Hopping]] below.