Scientific Publications

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A listing of peer reviewed scientific publications and non-peer reviewed scientific studies that focus on subject material that is relevant to sour brewing. Some good journals to keep an eye on for new publications about sour and funky beers include Cerevisia, The Journal of the Institute of Brewing, and The International Journal of Food Microbiology.

Some of the papers are freely accessible and others require journal subscriptions for access.

Brettanomyces

Much of the scientific research done to date on Brettanomyces approaches the yeast from the view point of wine production and treating the yeast as a spoilage organism. These papers can still be useful to brewers interested in using Brett while recognizing the possible preconceptions, motivations, and biases that this viewpoint might contribute. Other groups, notably those led by a couple of Belgian researchers as well as Chad Yakobson's masters work, have studied Brett from the viewpoint of a desired component in certain beer fermentations.

Title Authors Date Note
Pure Culture Fermentation Characteristic of Brettanomyces Yeast Species and Their Use in the Brewing Industry Yakobson 2011 MSc thesis. Free access.
Screening and evaluation of the glucoside hydrolase activity in Saccharomyces and Brettanomyces brewing yeasts Daenen, Saison, Sterckx, Delvaux, Verachtert, Derdelinckx 2008 Free access.
Physiological, biochemical and molecular characterisation of hydroxycinnamic acid catabolism by Dekkera and Brettanomyces yeasts Victoria Harris 2010 Free access. PhD thesis. HCA's are the precursors to phenolic compounds in beer. See phenol production in Brettanomyces
Evaluation of the glycoside hydrolase activity of a Brettanomyces strain on glycosides from sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) used in the production of special fruit beers Daenen, Saison, Sterckx, Delvaux, Verachtert, Derdelinckx 2008 Free access.
Survey of enzyme activity responsible for phenolic off-flavour production by Dekkera and Brettanomyces yeast Harris, Ford, Jiranek, Grbin 2009 Not free access.
Genetic diversity and physiological traits of Brettanomyces bruxellensis strains isolated from Tuscan Sangiovese wines Agnolucci, Vigentini, Capurso, Merico, Tirelli, Compagno, Foschino, Nuti 2009 Not free access.
Dekkera and Brettanomyces growth and utilisation of hydroxycinnamic acids in synthetic media Harris, Ford Jiranek, Grbin 2008 Not free access.
The effect of sugar concentration and temperature on growth and volatile phenol production by Dekkera bruxellensis in wine Barata, Pagliara, Piccininno, Tarantino, Ciardulli, Malfeito-Ferreira, Loureiro 2008 Free access.
Formation of 4-vinyl and 4-ethyl derivatives from hydroxycinnamic acids: Occurrence of volatile phenolic flavour compounds in beer and distribution of Pad1-activity among brewing yeasts Vanbeneden, Gils, Delvaux, Delvaux 2008 Not free access.
Genome Survey Sequencing of the Wine Spoilage Yeast Dekkera (Brettanomyces) bruxellensis Woolfit, Rozpędowska, Piškur, Wolfe 2007 Free access
Release of hydroxycinnamic acids and formation of flavour-active volatile phenols during the beer production process Nele Vanbeneden 2007 PhD Thesis. Free access.
Localization and Characterization of α-Glucosidase Activity in Brettanomyces lambicus Shantha Kumara, De Cort, Verachtert 1993 Free access.
Esterase Activity in the Genus Brettanomyces Spaepen and Verachtert 1982 Brett ester production and destruction. Free access.

Lactic Acid Bacteria

Title Authors Date Note
125th Anniversary Review: Bacteria in brewing: The good, the bad and the ugly Vriesekoop, Krahl, Hucker, Menz 2012 Free access.
Fundamentals of Beer and Hop Chemistry Keukeleire August 12, 1998 Useful information regarding how beta acids and iso-alpha acids inhibit/effect the grown of gram-positive bacteria and LAB. Free access.
Beer spoilage bacteria and hop resistance Sakamoto and Konings 2003 Another useful paper for antimicrobial properties of hops and bacterial resistance. Not free access.
Localization and Characterization of α-Glucosidase Activity in Lactobacillus brevis De Cort, Shantha Kumara, Verachtert 1994 Free access.
Growth Response of Lactobacillus brevis to Aeration and Organic Catalysts. J. R. Stamer and B. O. Stoyla. Sep 1967 Referenced by Wyeast 5223 L. brevis. Free Access.

Lambic and Spontaneous Fermentation

Title Authors Date Note
The Microbial Diversity of Traditional Spontaneously Fermented Lambic Beer] Spitaels, Wieme, Janssens, Aerts, Daniel, Van Landschoot, De Vuyst, Vandamme April 18, 2014 Free access
BELGIAN ACIDIC BEERS Daily Reminiscences of the Past Verachtert and Denderlinckx 2014 Not free access.
Taming Wild Yeast: Potential of Conventional and Nonconventional Yeasts in Industrial Fermentations Steensels and Verstrepen 2014 Not free access
Microbiota and metabolites of aged bottled gueuze beers converge to the same composition Spitaels, Kerrebroeck, Wieme, Snauwaert, Aerts, Van Landschoot,De Vuyst, Vandamme 2014 Not free access
Brewhouse-Resident Microbiota Are Responsible for Multi-Stage Fermentation of American Coolship Ale Bokulich, Bamforth, Mills April 18, 2012 Free access.
Characterization of aroma and flavor compounds present in lambic (gueuze) beer Katherine Witrick 2012 PhD Thesis. Free access.
Occurrence of sotolon, abhexon and theaspirane-derived molecules in Gueuze beers. Chemical similarities with ‘yellow wines’ Scholtes, Nizet, Colin 2012 Free access.
Fermentation Studies on the Traditional Russian Drink “Sourish Shchi” Dankovtsev, Vostrikov, Markina 2002 Free access.
Microbiological Aspects of a Mixed Yeast—Bacterial Fermentation in the Production of a Special Belgian Acidic Ale Martens, Iserentant, Verachtert 1997 Free access.
Synthesis of Aroma Compounds By Wort Enterobacteria During the First Stage of Lambic Fermentation Martens, Dawoud, Verachtert 1992 Free access.
Wort Enterobacteria and Other Microbial Populations Involved During the First Month of Lambic Fermentation Martens, Dawoud, Verachtert 1991 Free access.
Identification of Lambic Superattenuating Micro-Organisms By the Use of Selective Antibiotics Shantha Kumara and Verachtert 1991 Free access.
Fatty Acids and Esters Produced During the Spontaneous Fermentation of Lambic and Gueuze Spaepen, Van Oevelen, Verachtert 1978 Free access.
Microbiological Aspects of Spontaneous Wort Fermentation in the Production of Lambic and Gueuze Van Oevelen, Spaepen, Timmermans, Verachtert 1977 The source of the data used to create the Apte chart of which microbes are active at a given time in Lambic Fermentation as presented in his 2004 slideshow and in Wild Brews. Free access.
Synthesis of Aroma Components During the Spontaneous Fermentation of Lambic and Gueuze Van Oevelen, De L'Escaille Verachtert 1976 Free access.

Other resources

These studies, presentations, or discussions aren't peer reviewed but they do contain useful info for brewing sour and funky beers..

Title Authors Date Note
Measurement of Oxygen Transfer Rates for Carboy Closures and Air Locks Gibbs November 10, 2011 Study performed by Better Bottle. Free access.
How to Make Sour Ale: an inquiry Apte 2004 contains Apte's charts for oxygen permeability and other notable references. Free access.
Pickled beer: Concepts of Sour Ale Raj Apte 2004 A presentation about sour beer. Free access.
Horse of a Different Color Nate Sampson, Michael Tonsmeire, Steve Gale, Tomme Arthur, Al Buck, Cisco ?, Sean Paxton Round table tasting and discussion of brett primary beers. The author of the transcript is not listed. Free access.
Methods of Creating and Maintaining 'Wild' House Cultures Kyle Kohlmorgan 2013 Presentation at NHC 2013. Notes available here. Audio available from the AHA website past presentations section (must be an AHA member for access).
The Mystery of Lambic Beer Jacques De Keersmaecker 1996 Article in Scientific American. Free access.